PREGNANCY SYMPTOMS: WHAT TO EXPECT THE THIRD TRIMESTER

Posted in Health, Pregnancy by woman2womenblog

Almost there! The third trimester is full of expectation, as the moment you will hold the baby in your arms approaches. But the excitement comes with a lot of uncomfortable symptoms…

The third trimester lasts from the 7th through the 9th month of pregnancy, that is, from week 28 till the moment you give birth, usually around week 40. This period can be challenging and tiring, as your womb grows and creates a lot of discomfort. Most of the symptoms you will experience are those that appeared during the second trimester, although they will be more intense now: back pain, leg swelling, sleep problems, itchy skin…

But keep a positive attitude! Read this list with the most common symptoms of the last three months of pregnancy and learn what you can do to relieve them. We will focus on the symptoms that appear during the third trimester, or that are somewhat different now. This is what you can expect:

1) Abdominal muscle separation

As your uterus grows, it pushes against the abdominal wall and stretches its muscles (the ‘six pack’ muscles), which will start separating in the middle and cause a bulge, or gap in the middle of the abdomen. This condition, called diastasis recti abdominis, is more evident when the abdominal muscles are tense, such as during coughing or getting up from a lying down position. Diastasis recti can cause lower back pain, making it difficult to carry out certain activities, such as lifting objects.

Not all women develop abdominal muscle separation; you are more likely to get it if you are older than 35 years-old, have a multiple pregnancy or carry a large baby, or have repeated pregnancies.

What can you do about it:

Muscle separation lessens in the months that follow delivery, although some degree of separation may remain. Certain exercises will help you regain abdominal strength after childbirth.
During pregnancy, avoid aggressive abdominal exercises (such as sit-ups), which may provoke or worsen diastasis recti.
If abdominal muscle weakness associated with diastasis recti is interfering with your daily activities, seek the advice of your care provider or a specialized physiotherapist, who can indicate certain strength and postural correction exercises.

2) Breast leakage

By the end of pregnancy, you may notice a yellowish fluid leaking from your nipples, and this is normal. This substance, called colostrum, will nourish your baby in the first few days after birth.

While some women leak quite a lot of colostrum, others don’t leak at all. Leaking won’t make any difference to how much milk you will produce once your baby is born.

What can you do about it:

If you just leak a few drops, then you don’t need to do anything. But if it bothers you, you may wear nursing pads inside your bra to absorb the milk.
You should call your doctor or midwife if the nipple discharge becomes bloodstained.

3) Carpal tunnel syndrome

Tingling, numbness, weakness and pain in the hands during the last trimester are usually caused by a condition called carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS).

CTS is common in pregnancy, and happens due to the fluid retention in the tissues of the wrist, which in turn squeezes a nerve (the median nerve), that runs down to your hand and fingers. Women that keep doing forceful or repetitive hand and finger movements (such as long hours at a computer, or the use of vibrating equipment) may have worse symptoms.

What can you do about it:

CTS usually disappears without treatment after childbirth, when pregnancy-related fluid buildup is relieved. In the meantime, you may try the following:

Avoid activities that may be causing symptoms.
Wear a wrist splint to keep your wrist straight, especially at night, when the symptoms can be more bothersome.
Do exercises to stretch and strengthen the muscles in the hand and arm.
Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture might help relieve hand pain.
If nothing works, talk to your doctor, who may prescribe certain medications.
Surgery is the last resort treatment, but unless CTS become intolerable, it will be delayed until after birth.

4) Dreams and nightmares

You knew about the sleep problems during pregnancy. But you may get surprised, even disturbed when you start getting frequent and vivid dreams, occasionally nightmares; you may also realize that you remember your dreams more clearly.

The exact reason of these changes in the dream pattern is not clear, but they seem to be related to hormonal and emotional factors, as well as the frequent sleep disruptions that come with pregnancy (read more here).

What can you do about it:

If your dreams are just more frequent or more vivid, you will just have to cope with them.
However, if you have frequent nightmares, that are too disturbing, don’t let you sleep or cause you intense anxiety, you may consider sharing them with a friend, your doctor, or a therapist.

5) Clumsiness, waddling

You may have noticed that, as pregnancy progresses, you get clumsier: things fall from you hands, you bump into doors, you may accidentally fall down! It is not just you, clumsiness is normal in pregnancy and is related to many factors: you are heavier and your growing womb changes the center of gravity, making it more difficult to move; your “pregnancy brain” makes it harder for you to concentrate on your activities; in addition, a hormone called relaxin relaxes all the joints in your body. Therefore, you won’t have the balance or dexterity you used to have.

The same reasons explain why, at the end of pregnancy, you will start waddling, which in turn will make you even clumsier!

What can you do about it:

Clumsiness is normal and there is not much you can do to prevent it. However, it is important that you take measures to protect yourself -and others- from accidents:

Avoid situations where you have a high risk of falling, such as standing on a ladder, using stairs, riding a bicycle, etc.
Wear comfortable shoes, that should not be neither too flat or too high (read more here).
Pay attention whenever you walk on wet, icy, or uneven surfaces.
Avoid gaining too much weight, which will make clumsiness much worse.
Call your doctor if, besides clumsy, you feel dizzy or lightheaded, your have blurred vision, headache, or any pain.

6) Emotional changes

As you get closer to childbirth, your anticipation grows, so do your anxiety, fears and concerns! Besides all the hormonal-related emotional changes, you may start getting worried about the delivery itself, as well as all the changes the baby will bring, your role as a parent, etc (see here).

What can you do about it:

Stay calm, mild physical activity can help (read here), eat well (here), indulge yourself with a beauty treatment! (here).
Taking childbirth classes can help you feel more prepared to face labor and delivery.
Discuss your emotions and fears with your doctor or midwife.
Sharing your feelings with friends, your partner or other moms-to-be can be very helpful.
Nevertheless, if you feel constantly down or overwhelmed, if you have negative or suicidal thoughts, if you can’t go ahead with your daily life you must discuss it with your doctor.

7) Fatigue

Forget the energy you had during the second trimester: fatigue is back! Carrying extra weight, waking up several times during the night to go to the bathroom, and dealing with the anxiety of preparing for a baby can all decrease your energy level.

What can you do about it:

Eat healthy, frequent and small meals: it’s a good idea to keep with you healthy snacks that you can grab whenever you feel out of energy.
If you work, take regular, small breaks; you may even consider taking a quick nap!
Light exercise can make you feel more energetic: walking, swimming or prenatal yoga are good options, but listen to your body! Don’t force yourself.
Check with your doctor if you feel extremely tired, so that she/he may do some blood test to rule out anemia or other problems.

8) Forgetfulness (“Pregnancy brain”)

It’s not a myth: intense forgetfulness, known as “pregnancy brain” is a normal symptom of pregnancy, which nevertheless can be very annoying!

It is mostly related to pregnancy hormones, but sleep disturbances and fatigue can make it worse.

What can you do about it:

Don’t worry! Your brain will work normally again after delivery. Well, sort of, as you will have to deal with the sleepless nights while taking care of your baby 😉

In the meantime, these tips may help:

Stay organized! Write down what you need to do, technology may help: reminders on your phone or to-do lists in your computer will make it easier.
Ask for help: cut down on what you’re responsible for by delegating some jobs to others.
Eat well: certain foods may boost your memory: eating plenty of choline-rich foods and DHA-rich foods during pregnancy may help boost your -and your baby’s- brain function.

9) Frequent urination, urinary incontinence

As your baby grows, the pressure on your bladder increases, causing a constant feeling you need to go to pee. This may be worse during the night, because when you lie down, the fluids you retained in your legs and feet during the day make its way back into your bloodstream and eventually into your bladder.

Many women also experience stress urinary incontinence, that is, they lose some urine when they cough, laugh, sneeze, lift heavy objects, or exercise.

What can you do about it:

To reduce frequent urination:

Avoid beverages that contain caffein, which has diuretic effect.
It’s not a good idea to cut down on fluids, as your body needs plenty of them during pregnancy. Instead, you may reduce fluid intake in the hours before you go to bed.
Lean forward when you urinate: this helps empty out your bladder better.

To avoid incontinence:

Empty your bladder before exercising.
Wear a panty liner to catch any unexpected leakage.
Kegel exercises, which strengthen the muscles of the pelvic floor, can also help minimize stress incontinence.

You should inform your doctor or midwife if you feel pain or burning with urination, if your see blood when you wipe or if you feel the urge to pee even when you produce just a few drops at a time. These could be signs of a urinary tract infection (UTI).

10) Heartburn

Another symptom you may have experienced during the first three months of pregnancy, got better during the second trimester but now came back! While the heartburn you experienced during the first trimester was hormone-related, now your enlarged uterus is to blame, as it crowds the abdomen, pushing the stomach acids upward.

What can you do about it:

Eat small, frequent meals, don’t eat too much before going to bed.
Avoid too spicy, greasy, acidic or sweet foods.
Don’t lie flat, sleep with two or more pillows to have your head at a higher level than your body.
Call your doctor if you can’t cope with heartburn, who can prescribe you an antiacid medication that is safe for pregnancy.

11) Pelvic pain

Once you’re in your third trimester, you may experience pain and pressure in your pelvic region, as the weight of your growing fetus presses down on certain nerves that run into the legs; for the same reason you may also feel tingling, numbness and pain along the outer thigh; which can be very annoying for some women.

Relaxed pelvic joints are a common cause of pelvic pain: toward the end of your pregnancy the hormone relaxin helps the ligaments become loose in preparation for childbirth. This hormone can also loosen your pelvic joint, and even cause it to separate a bit. It’s common to feel pain near your pubic bone, and you may also feel like your legs are unstable. This is called Symphysis pubic dysfunction (SPD).

Your fetus’s head can also to rub your tailbone, causing tailbone pain and pressure. The condition is called coccydynia and occasionally the pain can be very intense.

Braxton Hicks contractions can also cause pressure and tightening in the pelvis (see below). Constipation also can cause pelvic pain or discomfort (see here).

What can you do about it:

Be patient! Once your baby is born, all the pressure-related symptoms will be gone; in addition, relaxin production will cease and the joints will be firm again, easing your pain. In the meantime:

Get plenty of rest; a change of position that shifts the pelvic pressure away from the nerves responsible for the pain should provide some relief.
Avoid lifting heavy things.
Warm compresses on the painful the area may ease soreness.
Pelvic support belts can help stabilize the area.
If the pain is severe enough, ask your doctor about painkillers.

12) Swelling

During the second trimester some women experience some swelling of the ankles and feet. Now, swelling – or edema will be also evident in the hands, face and upper legs.

Swelling is normal and is caused by the excess blood and fluids your body produces to meet the baby’s needs. This extra fluid will also soften the body and help it expand as the baby grows, and prepare the joints and tissues to open more easily during delivery.

Swelling is usually worse with warm weather, if you stand up for long periods of time, if you consume too much caffeine or salty foods, or if your diet is low in potassium.

What can you do about it:

Reduce salt intake, avoid adding extra salt to meals.
Avoid caffeine consumption.
Eat foods high in potassium (such as bananas).
Minimize outdoor time when it’s hot.
Avoid long periods of standing or sitting.
Move regularly your feet, or keep your legs elevated while sitting.
Wear comfortable shoes (read more here).
Avoid clothes that are tight around your wrists or ankles.
Wear supportive tights or stockings.
Get plenty of rest, swimming may also help.
Use cold compresses on swollen areas.

13) Shortness of breath

As your pregnancy progresses you may start feeling breathless after minimal amounts of physical exertion, or even when talking!

Mild breathlessness is totally normal; during early pregnancy is due to pregnancy hormones, which make you take more and deeper breaths, so that you get additional oxygen for the baby. But in the third trimester, shortness of breath is mostly related to your expanding uterus putting pressure on the lungs and diaphragm, making it harder to take a deep breath.

What can you do about it:

Don’t overdo it with your daily activities or while exercising; when you feel breathless, slow down.
Make room for your lungs to take air: stand up straight, don’t sit down for long periods of time, sleep propped up on pillows.
If the shortness of breath is severe, you have chest pain or a quick pulse, call your doctor immediately.

14) Vaginal discharge

Increased vaginal secretions are completely normal and start during the first trimester. These discharge helps prevent infections travelling up from the vagina to the womb.Towards the end of pregnancy, the amount of discharge increases and can be confused with urine; close to delivery it may even contain streaks of thick mucus and some blood (this is called “bloody show”; we will discuss more about it in another post). Vaginal secretions should be white or clear, and should not smell unpleasant.

What can you do about it:

You may wear panty liners, but do not use tampons.
Prefer cotton underwear, avoid string or thongs that may cause intense rubbing, which together with the increased discharge can favor yeast or other infections.
Avoid vaginal douching (which is never a good idea, but especially during pregnancy).
Pay attention to washes and wipes that could be irritating, increasing your chances of a vaginal infection.
Call your doctor or midwife if you have discharge that is yellow, green or foul-smelling, if you have intense itching or burning, symptoms that may show that you have a vaginal infection. Likewise, call your healthcare provider if you have a lot of watery, vaginal discharge, which may signal that you broke your water bag.

15) Vulvar varicose veins

If you feel something “like worms” on your genital area, together with some pressure, swelling of discomfort in the vulva, don’t panic! These are dilated vulvar veins and occur due to the increased blood flow to the area, and the pressure the growing uterus puts on the veins of your lower body. Vulvar varicosities are seen quite often during pregnancy, either alone or with varicose veins of the legs, or hemorrhoids. Long periods of standing, exercise and sex can aggravate them. Occasionally though, they are completely asymptomatic, and the only way you’ll know you have them is because your doctor tells you.

What can you do about it:

Most of the times, vulvar varicosities don’t affect your mode of delivery, and they go away on their own after birth. If they are bothersome, you may try the following:

Wear support garment specifically designed for vulvar varicosities.
Avoid standing for long periods of time.
Swimming helps lift the baby from the pelvis and improves blood flow, relieving your pain.
Elevate your hips slightly when lying down to promote circulation; you may place a folded towel beneath your hips.
Cold compresses applied to your vulva may ease discomfort.

What else to expect

Baby movements

During the second trimester and beginning of the third, your baby has plenty of room in the womb, so most likely you will feel pushing, swirling, twisting, and kicking. But as he/she grows bigger, there is less space for movement; thus probably you won’t get the punches and kicks you were used to. Instead, you’ll feel more wiggles, stretches and turns. Although by the end of pregnancy mobility may be reduced when he gets engaged in the pelvis, the baby should keep moving until the moment he is born.
Keep in mind though that the baby is not constantly on the move: there are times when she sleeps. Towards the end of your pregnancy, the baby rests for about 20 minutes at a time, but occasionally the rest periods may be as long as 50 or 75 minutes.
Although you may have read or heard you need to count the baby’s kicks, there is a huge variation among babies, and no normal values for baby’s kicks have been determined; therefore, a written record of your baby’s movements is not necessary. Since every baby has a different pattern of waking and sleeping, what is important is to follow up on your baby’s own pattern of movements. If you notice a change in your baby’s pattern of movements, or are worried at any stage, contact your midwife or doctor, so that they can check the baby’s wellbeing with certain specific tests.
At some point you may not be sure whether you felt your baby kicking. Keep in mind that you’re more likely to be aware of your baby’s movements when you’re lying down rather than sitting or standing. Therefore, in the doubt, have a snack, particularly something sweet, lie down on your side and wait. You may also try making some noise, or playing loud music. If your baby starts moving around, most likely everything is fine.

But you should contact your midwife or doctor right away if you notice any of the following:

You don’t feel several movements while lying on your side for two hours.
Your baby doesn’t start to move in response to noise or some other stimulus.
There’s a big decrease in your baby’s movements, or a gradual decrease over several days.

Weight gain

You should aim for a weight gain of about 1-2 kg per month during your third trimester, but it is not unusual to lose 1 or 2 kilos by the end of pregnancy, as your stomach gets compressed by the baby and you get a feeling of fullness even with small meals. In total, you should have put on about 12 kg (8-16 kg). However, your doctor may recommend that you gain more or less weight if you started out your pregnancy underweight or overweight.
It is very important that your weight gain doesn’t exceed these limits, as it may lead to several complications in pregnancy and delivery, such as high blood pressure, gestational diabetes, backache or delivery complications due to increased fetus weight. Not to mention that it will be more difficult to get back to your pre-pregnancy weight…

Braxton Hicks contractions

Pressure or tightening in the pelvis that comes and goes could be contractions, but if they’re sporadic and not painful, they’re most likely Braxton Hicks contractions. They usually begin as early as the second trimester; however, they are most commonly experienced in the third trimester.
Braxton Hicks are also called “practice contractions” because they are a preparation for labor. They are irregular in intensity and frequency, usually painless or just uncomfortable (although sometimes they may be painful).
As Braxton Hicks intensify close to the time of delivery, they are often referred to as “false labor” and they may help prepare the uterus for delivery. These practice contractions may be more intense or frequent when you are too tired, your baby is very active, after sex or due to dehydration.

If you are not sure whether the contractions you feel are true or false labor, try the following:

Lie down, get some rest and wait.
Take a warm shower or bath.
Drink some fluids.

If none of these steps works at any stage of pregnancy; or if you are less that 37 weeks pregnant and you have contractions every 15 minutes or closer that persist over two hours, contact your health care provider.

Signs of Labor

When getting closer to the due date, most certainly you will start wondering: What are the signs labor is coming? How will it feel? and mainly: Will I understand when it’s time? A post answering these questions will follow soon… Stay tuned!

When to worry

Any of these symptoms could be a sign that something is wrong with your pregnancy. Call your doctor right away if you experience any of these symptoms:

Severe abdominal pain or cramping
Severe nausea or vomiting
Bleeding
Severe dizziness or fainting
Rapid weight gain or intense swelling
Fever (unrelated to a cold)
Pain or burning during urination
Watery vaginal discharge
Abundant green, yellow, foul-smelling discharge.

This list of not exhaustive; do not hesitate to contact your healthcare provider for any other symptom you are unsure whether it’s normal or not.

References

NICE: Antenatal Care- Routine Care for the Healthy Pregnant Woman. March 2008, UK
HAS: Comment mieux informer les femmes enceintes? Avril 2005, France

Photo credits

Intro: Flickr.com; 1) lifeopedia.com; 2) sheknows.com; 3) momjunction.com; 4) answerforsleep.com; 5) health.com; 6) Flickr.com; 7) healthymamabrand.com; 8) healthywomen.org; 9) intimina.com; 10) baby-pedia.com; 11) onlymyhealth.com; 12) medicmagic.net; 13) dnaindia.com; 14) pinterest.com; 15) amazon.com; Baby movements: babycenter.ca; Weight gain: parenthub.com.au; Braxton Hicks: birthcentered.com; When to worry: herb.co

26May2016

PREGNANCY SYMPTOMS: WHAT TO EXPECT THE SECOND TRIMESTER

Posted in Health, Pregnancy by woman2womenblog

Embed from Getty Images

You just made it through the first trimester of your pregnancy! Congratulations!

The second trimester – which lasts from the beginning of week 14 through the end of week 27- is for most women, the easiest of all three: the annoying symptoms of the first trimester usually disappear and you feel full of energy again! In addition, you will be less heavy, tired and anxious than during the third trimester…

The fact that you feel better doesn’t mean that nothing is going on! Your baby grows very fast during this period, and your body is working incessantly; thus you will notice many changes…

From all the symptoms you had during the first trimester (see here), many will disappear, other persist and some new will show up.

These symptoms usually disappear or ease during the second trimester:

nausea and vomits,
food aversions,
heartburn,
frequent urination,
acne.

These are symptoms that may persist:

dizziness,
bleeding of gums and nose,
stuffy nose,
vaginal discharge,
headache,
constipation,
food cravings.

In this article we will focus on the symptoms that make their appearance during the second trimester, or that are somewhat different now. Here is what you can expect:

1) Backache

While back pain during the first trimester is mostly related to mild uterine cramping, as pregnancy progresses it’s caused by weight gain and the shift of your center of gravity as a result of the growing uterus. Thus, you gradually adjust your posture, which results in back pain or strain.

What can you do about it:

avoid standing up for long periods of time,
sit up straight; use a chair with good back support,
sleep on your side; a pillow tucked between your legs may help,
avoid carrying anything heavy,
wear comfortable, low-heeled shoes with good arch support (read more here),
a heating pad may provide some relief,
if you feel really uncomfortable you may have a pregnancy massage.

If these measures don’t work or if the pain is strong, call your doctor, who can prescribe you a pain medication suitable for pregnancy.

2) Breast enlargement

While the tenderness and swelling you experienced during the first trimester usually wear off by now, your breast will keep growing in preparation for breastfeeding. You may occasionally have some leakage of milk.

What can you do about it:

wear a support bra; most likely you will need a bigger size,
avoid lacy or wired bras.

3) Emotional changes

As pregnancy progresses your body changes, so do your emotions! Your hormones certainly play a role, but it’s not only that: there is so much going on! So it’s natural to be worried or anxious at times, or to have mood swings (see here).

You will most likely feel less tired and with more energy than before, so enjoy your pregnancy! Start preparing yourself for the coming of your baby, you can learn more about labor and delivery. Focus on healthy lifestyle regarding nutrition (read here) and physical activity (here). This may be also a good time to indulge yourself with a trip, or some vacations! (see here).

Some women experience increased sexual desire during this period of pregnancy (more info here); others may feel unattractive as the womb grows. Spoil yourself with some beauty treatments! (read more here).

Although mood swings are an inextricable part of pregnancy, keep in mind that if you feel constantly down or overwhelmed, if you have negative or suicidal thoughts, if you can’t go ahead with your daily life you must discuss it with your doctor.

4) Hair changes

Hormonal changes during pregnancy favour hair growth. This may be great for the hair on your head, which usually becomes thicker, but not so great for hair growing on your face, arms or back!

What can you do about it:

Shaving, tweezing and waxing are safe options, although not always easy to implement as your belly grows!
Regarding laser, electrolysis and depilatory creams the experts’ opinions are divided (read more here).

You may discuss with your doctor which is the best technique for you.

5) Hemorrhoids

Most women will feel, at some point in their pregnancy, some soft lumps around the anus. In fact, hemorrhoids are swollen veins, which enlarge in pregnancy due to the increased pressure exerted by the growing uterus.

Although sometimes hemorrhoids are asymptomatic, the can be itchy, or painful; they may eventually bleed.

What can you do about it:

avoid constipation – they will get worse,
you may try a sitz bath (that is, you sit in warm water),
if they are too uncomfortable, you may ask your doctor about a hemorrhoid ointment.

6) Leg cramps

Painful leg muscle contractions typically affect the calf, foot or both; they are common during pregnancy, and usually occur at night.

The exact cause of leg cramps isn’t clear; possible reasons include pregnancy hormones, compression of the legs’ blood vessels, and calcium or magnesium deficiency.

What can you do about it:

regular physical activity might help prevent leg cramps; stretch your calf muscles before bedtime,
stay hydrated,
choose comfortable footwear with good support,
a hot shower, warm bath, ice or muscle massage can all help,
eat magnesium-rich foods, such as whole grains, beans, dried fruits, nuts and seeds.

Discuss with your doctor whether it’s OK for you to take a magnesium or calcium supplement.

7) Restless leg syndrome (RLS)

If you are among the 20% of pregnant women who suffer from this condition, you may have felt an itchy, pulling, burning or creepy-crawly sensation which causes an overwhelming urge to move your legs.

RLS usually strikes at night, when you are lying down or sitting for prolonged time periods; it may also affect the arms. Once you move your legs or arms, the feeling subsides; the problem is that, by then, the movement has already woken you up, making you feel tired and cranky during the day…

The cause of RLS is unknown, but in some women it may be triggered by a deficiency of iron or folic acid.

What can you do about it:

Be patient! RLS goes away right after birth… If your RLS is not that severe, simple lifestyle changes may help:

avoid drinking beverages with caffeine (coffee, soda, etc), particularly during the afternoon or evening,
don’t exercise close to bedtime (exercising can wind you up),
establish a sleep routine: go to bed and wake up at the same time every day,
relax before bedtime: take a warm bath, read a book…

When you wake up with RLS:

massage your legs,
apply warm or cold compresses to your leg muscles,
get up and walk or stretch your legs,
a vibrating pad placed under the legs (Relaxis) seems to help some women.

The treatment of severe RLS is challenging during pregnancy, as medications used for its treatment are possibly dangerous for the baby.

You may ask your doctor to check your iron levels, if they are low you can take an iron supplement.
If RLS makes you feel miserable, discuss with your doctor the possibility of a medical treatment (opioids); this would be the last resort as opioids can cause withdrawal symptoms in the baby.

8) Round ligament pain

As the womb grows, the ligaments that support it start stretching, making them more likely to become strained.

Round ligament pain is one of the most common complaints during pregnancy. Sudden movements can cause the ligaments to tighten quickly, which provokes a quick jabbing feeling, often felt in the lower belly or groin area on one or both sides, most commonly on the right side. Generally the pain is triggered by exercise, sneezing, coughing, laughing, rolling over in bed or standing up too quickly, and lasts only a few seconds or minutes.

What can you do about it:

avoid sudden movements,
flex your hips before you cough, sneeze, or laugh,
mild exercise will help you strengthen your abdominal muscles,
stretching exercises and yoga can be helpful,
a heating pad or a warm bath may ease pain,
you may take a painkiller such as acetaminophen.

Round ligament pain usually doesn’t last long. If you have severe pain that lasts more that a few minutes, or if it is accompanied by fever, burning with urination, or difficulty walking you should call your doctor right away.

9) Skin changes

Pregnancy hormones and your growing uterus are responsible for numerous skin changes that you will start noticing from now on. Here are the most common:

Pregnancy glow: pregnant women often look as though they are “glowing” because hormones increase the skin oil production and vascularisation, thus your face may appear flushed and shiny.

Mask of pregnancy: also called chloasma; an increase in the pigment melanin leads to brown marks on the face.

Linea nigra: related as well to increased melanin, it’s a dark line down the middle of the abdomen.

These skin changes should fade after the baby is born. In the meantime, you can use makeup to conceal them.

Keep in mind that your skin is more sensitive to the sun right now, so make sure to wear a high-protection sunscreen; limit also your time in the sun, especially between 10 am and 4 pm; a hat and sunglasses will provide extra protection.

Itchy skin: as your skin stretches due to your growing belly -and weight gain- it may feel itchy and dry, especially around your womb and breasts 2nd trimester skin changes .

To relieve it, moisturize often with mild skin care products; do not take hot showers and baths, which will dry out even more your skin. Also, avoid synthetic clothing which may irritate your skin.

Inform your doctor if your itching is unbearable, she/he can recommend you a medication adequate for pregnancy, and eventually rule out certain rare conditions which may be dangerous for you or your baby (though they usually appear during the third trimester).

Stretch marks: as with itching, stretch marks are the result of your skin expanding. Starting now, you may notice red or purple lines on your abdomen, breasts or thighs.

Watch your weight gain! The more weight you gain, the more likely to get stretch marks. Many creams and lotions are available to prevent them, although their efficacy is not backed up by much scientific evidence… In any case, most stretch marks will fade on their own after delivery.

10) Sleep problems

While everybody tells you to rest now to get prepared for the sleepless nights ahead once the baby is born, sleeping in pregnancy is not easy! A recent study showed that 3 out of 4 women! experience poor sleep quality: from all women included in the study, all of them reported frequent awakening, mostly due to frequent urination and difficulty finding a comfortable sleep position; insomnia, breathing problems (snoring and sleep apnea) and restless leg syndrome (see above) were also common complaints.

And let’s not forget heartburn, leg cramps, stuffy nose, eventually vivid dreams or nightmares…

What can you do about it:

avoid caffeine in the afternoon or evening,
stay away from sugar at night,
don’t drink too much right before bedtime to avoid frequent visits to the toilet,
work out, but only until early evening, as exercise can be energizing,
have a light snack before bedtime to prevent “hunger attacks” at night,
a glass of warm milk before sleeping may help,
take a warm bath just before bed,
keep your room cool; research has shown that is useful for better sleep,
a massage before sleeping can soothe you, as well as relaxation exercises, deep breathing, meditation, yoga, etc,
making love can also help!

You should mention any sleep problems to your doctor, who might be able to suggest more tips or eventually prescribe you medications that are safe during pregnancy.

11) Spider and varicose veins

Your blood circulation increases to send more blood to your baby; this can cause tiny red veins known as spider veins. Pressure on your legs from the growing uterus can result in swelling of your legs’ veins, which become blue or purple; these are called varicose veins.

What can you do about it:

Spider veins usually fade once your baby is born.

Varicose veins should improve within three months after you deliver. In the meantime, you may prevent them from getting worse:

avoid standing up for long periods of time,
get up often, move throughout the day,
keep your legs elevated (prop them on a stool) whenever you have to sit for a long time,
wear support hose.

12) Swelling of the ankles and feet

A very common symptom, is experienced by about three in four pregnant women, starting at about week 22 of pregnancy and lasting until delivery.

What can you do about it:

try to keep active,
avoid long periods of standing or sitting,
if you can’t avoid sitting or standing for a long time, move regularly your feet, or
keep your legs elevated while sitting,
support hose can help.

What else to expect

“Quickening”, baby movements

At about 20 weeks you will probably start feeling the first flutters of movement in your belly, which is often called quickening. Quickening may be first felt as early as week 15, but usually around weeks 18 to 22. A multipara (that is, a woman who has been pregnant before) usually feels the baby earlier. Some women won’t experience quickening until week 26, so don’t worry!

Keep in mind that babies, like the rest of us, are all different: while some are very active, others are more calm; activity also varies among different days and within the same day.

Weight gain

Your appetite should be back during the second trimester, once nausea and vomits have diminished or gone away. Since now you will feel hungrier, be aware of how much you’re eating! You only need about an extra 300 to 500 calories a day during the second trimester, and you should be gaining about 1,4 -1,8 kilograms a month until delivery. However, if you were overweight before pregnancy, your doctor may recommend gaining less weight.

Discuss with your health care provider what’s best in your case in order to manage your weight throughout pregnancy.

Braxton Hicks contractions

During the second trimester, your uterus may start contracting. These contractions, called Braxton Hicks, should be weak and come and go unpredictably.

If contractions become painful or regular, they could be a sign of preterm labor, so you should inform your doctor.

When to worry

Any of these symptoms could be a sign that something is wrong with your pregnancy. Call your doctor right away if you experience:

Severe abdominal pain or cramping
Bleeding
Severe dizziness or fainting
Rapid weight gain or intense swelling
Fever (unrelated to a cold)
Watery vaginal discharge
Abundant green, yellow, foul-smelling discharge.

References

NICE: Antenatal Care- Routine Care for the Healthy Pregnant Woman. March 2008, UK
HAS: Comment mieux informer les femmes enceintes? Avril 2005, France

Photo credits

Intro: Getty images, businessinsider.com; 1) simplebackpain.com; 2) pinterest.com; 3) kentuckianamommies.com; 4) drdina.ca; 5) hemorrhoidexpert.org; 6) newkidscenter.com; 7) babygaga.com; 8) viphealthandfitness.com; 9) woolworthsbabyandtoddlerclub.com.au, beautysouthafrica.com; 10) thebabychecklist.com; 11) pinterest.com; 12) pinterest.com; What else: popsugar.com; When to worry: earlypregnancy.net.

6Feb2016

PREGNANCY SYMPTOMS: WHAT TO EXPECT THE FIRST TRIMESTER

Posted in Health, Pregnancy by woman2womenblog

Embed from Getty Images

Pregnancy usually comes with a lot of joy… but sometimes it can be pretty overwhelming! Especially the first trimester, when your body starts changing. These changes are not the same for all women, though: while some women feel great and full of energy, others feel completely miserable…

Food cravings, nausea, mood swings… You have most likely heard about these pregnancy symptoms, but… what is normal? What to do about them? When to call your doctor?

In this article you will find a list of 16 common symptoms you may experience during the first trimester of pregnancy (weeks 0 to 13), you will learn why they happen, what you can do about them, and when to call your doctor -or midwife.

1) Abdominal cramping and backache

Why it happens: one of the earliest pregnancy symptoms, this slight cramping confuses many women who believe they’re about to have their period. Abdominal and back pain are caused by normal, mild uterine contractions related to the increasing pregnancy hormones.

What can you do about it: nothing, unless pain gets intense or comes with vaginal bleeding.

When to call your doctor: if you experience strong pain, or if you have pain and bleeding, in order to rule out certain pregnancy complications (see vaginal bleeding) or other conditions unrelated to pregnancy.

2) Acne

Why it happens: this is a very common symptom -pimples appear in about 50% of women- and sometimes can be quite intense. The β-HCG hormone (beta – human chorionic gonadotrophin), which raises from the beginning of pregnancy has androgenic effect (mimics male hormones), leading to increased skin oil production and the appearance of acne.

What can you do about it: most of medications used to treat acne are not allowed throughout pregnancy -isotretinoin, one of the most effective acne medications is also one of the most dangerous during pregnancy. Be patient! pregnancy acne will resolve after childbirth.

In the meantime, just get some good medication-free skin care:

wash your face and body with a gentle cleanser, alcohol and oil-free,
avoid over-cleansing as it may have the opposite effect,
shampoo regularly and avoid oily hair mousse,
do not pop your pimples, since it may cause permanent scarring.

When to call your doctor: If your acne is severe, you may consult a dermatologist to get the most adequate care for your skin type.

3) Bloating and constipation

Why it happens: during pregnancy a hormone called progesterone relaxes the bowels wall and slows down their activity in order to allow the absorption of more nutrients to feed your growing baby. The downside: you may feel bloated, gassy and get frequently constipated.

What can you do about it:

increase your fiber intake,
avoid foods that cause bloating (beans, cauliflower, etc),
drink plenty of fluids,
engage in physical activity.

When to call your doctor: if constipation really bothers you, ask your doctor for a laxative or stool softener that is safe for pregnancy.

4) Breast swelling and tenderness

Why it happens: your breasts, under the influence of the high hormones, start getting ready for breastfeeding, thus they engorge and receive more blood supply; this will cause tenderness and swelling.

What can you do about it:

wear a support bra (you may need to get a bigger size),
avoid lacy or wired bras.

When to call your doctor: if you get severe breast pain or redness, or if you palpate any lump.

5) Dizziness and fainting

Why it happens: your blood vessels dilate to increase blood supply to the womb and to your baby, leading to a drop in blood pressure, which can make you feel dizzy, lightheaded, or even faint. Dizziness can also be due to low blood sugar, especially if you are not eating adequately.

What can you do about it:

avoid prolonged standing,
rise slowly when you get up from sitting or lying down,
be especially careful if you drive or execute activities that require special concentration,
eat healthy, frequent meals (every two to three hours),
drink plenty of fluids to raise your blood pressure.

When to call your doctor: if your experience intense dizziness, especially if you have bleeding or intense abdominal pain, to rule out a miscarriage or an ectopic pregnancy (see vaginal bleeding).

6) Fatigue and sleepiness

Why it happens: from early pregnancy, your body has some extra work to do! Your metabolism increases and you start preparing the placenta; these changes together with the high progesterone levels are responsible for this constant feeling of drowsiness and intense fatigue. Your body reminds you that you should get some rest, so you will be stronger to carry your baby!

What can you do about it:

take naps and rest when possible,
eat healthy,
drink plenty of fluids,
avoid standing up for long periods of time.

When to call your doctor: if you feel that your drowsiness affects your daily activities, inform your doctor who can rule out other possible causes of fatigue such as anemia. If you have intense sleepiness together with negative feelings, hopelessness or sadness, inform your doctor to rule out depression.

7) Food cravings, food aversions

Why it happens: the sudden hormonal increase changes your food tastes; therefore, you may get food cravings -a sudden and intense urge to eat something in particular, which may eventually be quite unusual- or food aversion -repulsion for certain foods, even with the thought of them.

It is believed that during pregnancy our body asks for what it needs -hence cravings- and makes us reject things we don’t need or may be harmful, such as aversion to cigarette in smokers (unfortunately, this is not always the case).

What can you do about it:

Cravings:

Go ahead and indulge yourself with what you crave, provided that you generally follow a balanced and healthy diet,
when you crave for unhealthy foods, try to avoid excess: eat one scoop of ice cream, not the whole 1-kilo carton!
if cravings are too frequent, try to do activities to distract yourself so that you don’t think about food all the time: go for a walk, talk to a friend, read a book, go to the movies…

Aversions:

Most food aversions will go away after the first trimester, so most likely you will be able to eat meat or drink milk again thereafter,
if you keep having aversion to certain foods, try to find healthy substitutes for what you can’t tolerate, e.g., have calcium-fortified cereals if you can’t drink milk.

When to call your doctor: If you crave for clay, ashes or dirt -a condition called pica– as this can be really dangerous for you and your baby; if your food aversions are too intense and followed by frequent vomiting (see Nausea and vomiting).

8) Frequent urination

Why it happens: you may notice from very early in pregnancy that you need to pee more often. As your body blood flow increases with pregnancy, more blood goes to the kidneys in order to flush more waste products out of your body; this leads to increased urine production. Urination is more frequent during the night because the fluid you had retained in your legs during the day will get reabsorbed when you lie down. In addition, as the uterus grows it starts putting pressure on the bladder.

What can you do about it:

don’t hold you urine, as this can predispose you to urinary infections,
avoid too much caffeine (coffee, tea, cola drinks) since they have diuretic effect,
don’t drink too much before going to bed.

When to call your doctor: If, besides frequent urination, you feel burning or pain when you pee, or you see blood when wiping: these can be signs of a urinary tract infection.

9) Headaches

Why it happens: headaches occur frequently early in pregnancy mostly due to the increased hormone levels; but low blood pressure, low sugar, anemia or dehydration can all worsen headaches. Women who had migraines before getting pregnant may experience worsening in the first trimester, but usually improvement as the pregnancy progresses.

What can you do about it:

drink plenty of fluids,
eat frequent meals,
get some rest when possible.

When to call your doctor: If headaches persist, check with your doctor whether you can take acetaminophen (Tylenol), which is usually allowed throughout pregnancy. Contact you doctor if your headaches are too intense, do not subside with Tylenol or are accompanied by visual disturbances or other symptoms.

10) Heartburn, heavy stomach

Why it happens: Again, progesterone is responsible for relaxing the sphincter (ring of muscle) that separates the stomach from the esophagus; this leads to acid reflux.

What can you do about it:

eat small, frequent meals, don’t eat too much before going to bed,
avoid too spicy, greasy, acidic or sweet foods,
don’t lie flat, sleep with two or more pillows to have your head at a higher level than your body.

When to call your doctor: if you can’t cope with heartburn, ask your doctor to prescribe you an antiacid medication that is safe for pregnancy.

11) Mood swings

Why it happens: mostly because of your hormones, but eventually increased by your dizziness, nausea or other pregnancy symptoms, you may feel at times irritated or depressed, anxious or out of energy, overjoyed or panicked! Is not only hormones, though. Pregnancy will bring major changes to your life, so it’s natural to worry about many things: whether your will make it through labor and delivery, if you baby will be fine, whether you will be a good mother, if the relationship with your partner will be affected, etc, etc… Most women will also become more forgetful; while this is normal, it may be quite frustrating…

What can you do about it:

talk about it, find someone who can listen to you: your partner, a family member, a friend, or other mums-to-be,
ask for understanding and support, not only psychological but also physical: if you can’t do certain activities at work or a home, let someone help you,
get some rest: you may feel worse if you are tired or sleep-deprived,
engage in activities that calm you down and relax you; mild exercise can also help.

When to call your doctor: if you feel constantly down or overwhelmed, if you have negative or suicidal thoughts, if you can’t go ahead with your daily life; in these situations you may need professional help.

12) Nausea and vomits

Why it happens: nausea is one of the commonest pregnancy symptoms (occurs in about 85% of pregnancies). It is not fully understood why it happens, but it seems to be related to β-HCG levels: the higher levels, the more nauseous you may feel (e.g., women carrying twins).

Nausea and vomits usually start around the 6th week of pregnancy and persist until week 13, although they may last up to the 16th – 20th week, or more rarely beyond 20 weeks. They can be of variable intensity, for some women very mild, for others very severe, leading to continuous vomiting. Nausea may be more intense during the morning -that’s why it’s called morning sickness– although this is not always the case.

What can you do about it:

nausea gets worse when you have empty stomach, therefore, have frequent and small meals,
foods with high starch content may relieve nausea (crackers, potatoes, rice, pasta), but each woman find which foods can tolerate and which not,
avoid food with strong smell or taste,
ginger can help (either raw ginger, ginger ale or ginger pills),
accupressure, motion sickness wristbands and vitamin B6 can also be effective,
stress and tiredness can worsen nausea, therefore try to get plenty of rest,
keep drinking to avoid dehydration, but drink small amounts of fluids at a time, since large amounts can make nausea worse.

When to call your doctor: if nausea doesn’t allow you to eat or drink anything, or if you can’t stop vomiting, your doctor can prescribe you certain medications that may be helpful. Sometimes intense vomiting may lead to dehydration, a condition called hyperemesis gravidarum, which requires admission to a hospital for rehydration and intravenous treatment.

13) Nosebleed, stuffy nose, gum bleeding

Why it happens: blood flow increases in pregnancy, and your gums and nasal lining are very fragile and bleed easily. Gums may bleed when you brush your teeth. Nosebleeds may appear when you blow your nose; you may also notice that your nose gets more easily congested, also as a result of the increased blow flow to the nose’s mucous membranes.

What can you do about it:

keep seeing regularly your dentist to rule out certain gums problems, which are common in pregnancy and may increase bleeding,
switch to a softer toothbrush,
to stop nose bleeding pinching your nose for a few minutes should help,
for your nose congestion you may use a humidifier, or try a saline nasal spray,
don’t use nose spays or other decongestants without checking with your doctor.

When to call your doctor: if your gum or nose bleeding are heavy or too frequent. If your nose congestion gets too intense and you can’t breathe.

14) Smell intolerance, increased sense of smell

Why it happens: many women won’t stand certain strong smells, either from food, cosmetics or others sources, triggering nausea or vomits. This sensitivity to smells is hormone-related; it is said that nature prepares you to “sense” dangerous threats in order to protect your baby.

What can you do about it:

avoid foods with intense smell,
you may need to stop cooking for a while -if possible,
don’t use scented cosmetics if the smell bothers you; this is also true for laundry soap, softeners, air fresheners, etc.

When to call your doctor: in case your smell intolerance leads you to intense vomiting (see Nausea and vomits).

15) Vaginal bleeding

Why it happens: Bleeding during the first trimester is extremely common (it happens in about 25% of pregnancies) and is usually of no concern. A slight bleeding may be due to the implantation of the embryo in the uterus; sometimes a small detachment of the sac from the uterine cavity -or subchorionic bleeding- may be the reason; an inflammation of the cervix may occasionally cause slight bleeding (mainly with intercourse). Sometimes though, bleeding can be worrisome, i.e., when related to threatened miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy (a pregnancy outside the uterus).

What can you do about it:

keep track of the amount and characteristics of the blood,
don’t have intercourse, don’t use tampons,
according to the cause of the bleeding, you may be asked to get some bedrest, and refrain from heavy work or heavy lifting.

When to call your doctor: If you see blood, you should inform your doctor, even if you have light bleeding, as it may not be always easy to understand when bleeding is to worry about. But you should call your doctor right away (or go to the emergency room) if you have heavy bleeding, cramps (like intense period pain), or sharp pain in your abdomen, as these can be signs of miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy.

16) Vaginal discharge

Why it happens: Your high hormones are responsible for an increase in vaginal discharge, that should be white or clear, and thin.

What can you do about it:

you can wear panty liners, but you should not wear tampons,
prefer cotton underwear,
avoid string or thong underwear that may cause intense rubbing, which together with the increased discharge can favor yeast or other infections.

When to call your doctor: if you have discharge that is yellow, green or foul-smelling, or if you have intense itching or burning.

Stay tuned! More posts with symptoms to expect during the second and third trimester of pregnancy will follow…

References

NICE: Antenatal Care- Routine Care for the Healthy Pregnant Woman. March 2008, UK
HAS: Comment mieux informer les femmes enceintes? Avril 2005, France
American College of Obstetrician and Gynecologists: Nausea and vomits, Vaginal bleeding

Photo credits

Cover: Getty images; 1) dornascostasnuncamais.com.br; 2) babycenter.com; 3) adriseaplanes.eu; 4) thealphaparent.com; 5) pregnancymagazine.com; 6) womenshealthcaretopics.com; 7) motherandbaby.co.uk; 8) ladycarehealth.com; 9) momjunction.com; 10) ladycarehealth.com; 11) fitbottomedmamas.com; 12) not-equal.eu; 13) womenshealthcaretopics.com; 14) health-and-parenting.com; 15) zliving.com; 16) privatepregnancy.co.uk

18Oct2015

THE HPV VACCINE: WHY IS IT CONTROVERSIAL?

Posted in Health by woman2womenblog

The HPV vaccine has been around for almost 10 years and more than 175 millions doses have been distributed in 63 countries, with several studies confirming its safety and efficacy. In spite of that, the vaccine still remains a subject of controversy. Although recommended by most scientific societies worldwide, some recent reports questioning its safety fuelled even more the debate, dividing both general public and medical community.

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In this article we will analyse the existing evidence regarding the HPV vaccine, with particular focus on its efficacy and safety. In order to organise the available information, the article will be divided into the following sections:

Getting to know HPV
Why a vaccine? The burden of HPV-related diseases
The three available HPV vaccines
Vaccination schedule and timing
Efficacy of the HPV vaccine
Safety of the HPV vaccine
Recent safety concerns: the chronicle of events
Other debatable issues
Unanswered questions…
Conclusion

1. Getting to know HPV

HPV (human papillomavirus) is a virus and is transmitted from person to person through skin-to-skin contact.

HPV infection is extremely common, and most of the times it will be cleared by the immune system.
Of the over 100 types of HPV, about 12 subtypes of the HPV (mostly subtypes 6 and 11) may cause genital warts (also known as condylomas). These so-called “low-risk types” can also cause a rare condition called recurrent respiratory papillomatosis, in which warts grow in the throat.
Approximately 15 types of HPV (most commonly types 16 and 18) are related to cancer. While cervical cancer is the most common HPV-related cancer, this virus can also cause other cancers: vulvar, vaginal, anal and oropharyngeal (mouth and throat), as well as penile cancer in men.

You can read more detailed information on HPV here.

2. Why a vaccine? The burden of HPV-related diseases

These figures will give you and idea of the magnitude of the problems caused by HPV:

-Worldwide, over 500,000 new cervical cancer cases are diagnosed annually. Cervical cancer ranks as the 4th cause of female cancer in the world and is the 2nd most common female cancer in women aged 15 to 44 years (1).

In the United States, an estimated 26,000 new cancers are attributable to HPV each year, about 17,000 in women and 9,000 in men (2) .

In Europe, about 58,000 new cases of HPV-related cancers are estimated to occur every year (3).

-Regarding precancerous lesions, the estimated annual burden of high-grade precancerous lesions ranges between 280,000 and 550,000 new cases per year in Europe (4).

-In addition to cancers and precancerous lesions, the problem of genital warts should also be taken into consideration. Genital warts are very common: 1 out of 10 persons will have condylomas at some point in their lives (the frequency varies according to different countries between 0,3 and 12 %) (5). About 800,000 new annual genital warts cases are estimated to occur in women and men in Europe (4). Although not life-threatening, the costs derived from their treatment and their psychological burden should not be neglected.

3. The three available HPV vaccines

From 2006, 2 vaccines have been available: One bivalent (Cervarix®), directed against HPV types 16 and 18, responsible for about 70% of cervical cancers and other HPV-associated cancers; the other quadrivalent (Gardasil® of Silgard® in different countries) containing 4 HPV types:16 and 18, together with HPV 6 and 11 which are responsible for more than 90% of genital warts.

In December 2014, the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a nine-valent vaccine, Gardasil 9® (6), which, besides the 4 strains contained in Gardasil (i.e., 6,11,16,18), includes types 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58, responsible for an additional 20% of HPV-related cancers (4). Gardasil 9 has also been recently approved for commercialisation in Europe (7).

4. Vaccination schedule and timing

Vaccines are given as a 3-dose series, Gardasil at 0, 2 and 6 months, Cervarix at 0, 1 and 6 months (8).
In the States, The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) and the American College of Obstetrician and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommend that girls be routinely vaccinated at age 11 or 12 years.
Since 2010 boys have been included in the vaccination schedule in the USA, with the same schedule as girls.
If not vaccinated when they were younger, girls/young women and boys/young men should be vaccinated through age 26 (9).
Vaccine may be given starting at age 9 years (9, 10).
A reduced, 2-dose schedule is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for those aged 9-13 years; this schedule is not recommended by the ACIP but it has been adopted by many countries.
Earlier vaccination (before age 14) results in higher immune response. Another argument in favor of early vaccination is the fact that vaccines are more effective before the onset of sexual activity (8).
Vaccination is recommended regardless of sexual activity or known HPV infection. Although vaccines seem to be less effective in sexually active people, some benefit is expected to be attained since exposure to all types of HPV included in the vaccines is very unlikely. Testing for HPV is NOT recommended before vaccination.
The vaccines are prophylactic, that is, they do not prevent progression of existing infection to disease or treat existing disease. (2)
The HPV vaccine is covered by most private health insurance and government insurance programs worldwide. Vaccinations schedules may vary in different countries.
There seems to be additional protection by the vaccine in women through age 45, as showed by certain studies (11). However, there is no recommendation for vaccination in individuals aged 26 to 45.
The same schedule applies for Gardasil 9 (0, 2 and 6 months). Revaccination with the nine-valent vaccine is not recommended in persons who previously completed the three-dose series with the bivalent or or quadrivalent HPV vaccine (8).

5. Efficacy of the HPV vaccine

The ultimate goal of the HPV vaccine is to reduce the incidence of HPV-related cancers. For obvious ethical reasons, the endpoint set to evaluate the HPV vaccine efficacy in different studies was precancerous lesions, namely CIN 2 and 3 (high risk lesions of the cervix, with potential to evolve to cancer). Other efficacy endpoints evaluated were incidence of HPV infection and incidence of condylomas.

Studies conducted before licensure showed that both vaccines achieved a high level of protection: 98-100% for the HPV types included in the vaccine in a naive population (that is, women who did not have HPV 16 or 18 at the time of vaccination), although the protection against precancerous lesions was 30-40% in the total vaccinated cohort (which included women who did not finish their immunization plan, or that were already infected with the virus before vaccination) (12, 13, 14, 15). There was also cross-protection for other types of HPV (i.e., HPV 45 and 31), which was more intense with Cervarix (16).

The impact of vaccination on the general population has also been analysed in some studies. Australia was the first country to introduce an organised HPV vaccination program, achieving one of the world’s highest vaccination compliance rates. Since 2007, when the National HPV vaccination program started with the quadrivalent vaccine, HPV infections from the types included in the vaccine decreased from 29% to 7% (17); a 93% reduction in the diagnosis of genital warts was also observed (18). Moreover, other recent studies showed an almost 50% reduction of high-grade cervical precancerous lesions in women who had received all required doses of the vaccine (19).

Denmark also counts with an organised vaccination program. Six years after licensure of the quadrivalent HPV vaccine, a reduction of cervical precancerous lesions was observed, which was 80% in younger patients (20).

Recently, a study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the nine-valent vaccine. Gardasil 9 prevented 97% of high-grade precancerous lesions of the cervix, vulva, and vagina caused by the five new high-risk HPV types (HPV31/33/45/52/58) (21). The nine-valent vaccine also generated immune responses to HPV6/11/16/18 that were as good as or better than those generated by the quadrivalent vaccine. (4, 22)

6. Safety of the HPV vaccine

Many studies have evaluated HPV vaccine safety, both before their commercialisation and post-release, which demonstrated no differences in side effects as compared to control groups, irrespective of age and ethnicity (23).

According to the CDC, the most commonly reported side effects of the vaccines are:

Pain, redness, or swelling in the arm where the shot was given
Fever
Headache or feeling tired
Nausea
Muscle or joint pain

Fainting (also known as syncope) and related symptoms (such as jerking movements) is not uncommon (24), especially in teenagers. For that reason, it is recommended that people receiving the HPV vaccine sit or lie down during vaccination, and remain seated for 15 minutes after the shot. (23)

Considering the target age of vaccination (which includes women in reproductive age), pregnancy outcomes received special attention. No increase in miscarriage rates has been reported for either of the vaccines (25). In addition, pregnant women that were recorded and observed in registrative trials did not have increased rate of congenital abnormalities (26, 27, 24).

Studies have also demonstrated efficacy and safety of the vaccines in men, both in heterosexual and men who have sex with men (28).

Serious side effects are very rare (less than 0.5%) (29), the most common being persistent headache, hypertension, gastroenteritis, bronchospasm and anaphylaxis. Their reported incidence is similar to that of other compulsory vaccines types (30).

Certain side effects have been a matter of concern since the introduction of the vaccine, namely autoimmune diseases (AD) (i.e., hypothyroidism, rheumatoid arthritis, Behçet’s syndrome, Raynaud’s disease, type 1 diabetes, and vitiligo), neurological disorders (such as epilepsy, paralysis, Guillain–Barré syndrome, central demyelination, and multiple sclerosis) and venous thromboembolism (a blood clot that plugs a vein). It should be mentioned that ADs are not rare in adolescents and young adults, particularly in women. Therefore, it is a real challenge to distinguish causal from temporal association. A recent study gathered the results of 9 large studies (of which one was an analysis of 42 trials together, or metanalysis) in order to investigate severe adverse reactions after the HPV vaccine. None of the included studies found evidence of increased risk of autoimmune disease, neurological disorder, or venous thromboembolism (31).

The Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety (GACVS), established by the World Health Organization (WHO) provides independent, scientifically rigorous advice on vaccine-safety issues. In December 2013, the committee reviewed different topics and considered all available evidence on the safety of HPV vaccines, and concluded that both commercially available vaccines are safe (32). Likewise, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) Gynecologic Oncologic Committee and Subcommittee for Cervical Cancer Prevention support the continued administration of the HPV vaccines in appropriate populations (33).

7. Recent safety concerns: the chronicle of events

Although some isolated cases of side effects had been described in UK and Australia (34), Japan was the first country reporting on several girls suffering from severe pain and disability; these cases were heavily publicised in newspapers, TV news and social media, but they also alarmed the medical community. Japanese physicians published later on a series of 44 girls who were diagnosed with complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) (35). Due to these concerns, in June 2013 the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (MHLW) decided to suspend its active recommendation of HPV vaccination. This decision created intense debate among scientists and general public, which continues until nowadays (34).

In March 2015, Denmark‘s TV channel TV2 aired a documentary entitled The Vaccinated Girls – Sick and Betrayed. The journalists gathered about 60 girls from all over Denmark who became sick shortly after receiving the HPV vaccine. Among the doctors interviewed is Louise Brinth, who examined approximately 80 girls with similar symptoms potentially caused by the HPV vaccine. Dr. Brinth noted that the girls experience symptoms such as dizziness, passing out, and severe headaches. She said, “They have abdominal pain and nausea. They have weird muscle movements they cannot control. And they’re very tired… We see a pattern that screams to heaven, and that should be examined by some solid research.”

In April 2015, Dr. Brinth reported in a scientific journal on 53 patients complaining of orthostatic intolerance, severe headache, excessive fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, gastrointestinal discomfort and widespread pain. Most of them were diagnosed with a rare syndrome known as postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), and all of them were in close temporal association with the HPV vaccine (36a, 36b).

Denmark’s documentary has had a huge impact worldwide, both in the general public and the medical community. A closed Facebook page set up for suspected victims of adverse reactions to Gardasil in Denmark tripled its -careful verified- members; similar Facebook groups were created in other countries.

At the request of Denmark, The European Medicines Agency (EMA) is currently conducting a safety review of HPV vaccines. However, the agency emphasizes that this review “does not question that the benefits of HPV vaccines outweigh their risks.”The agency also notes that while the review is being carried out, no change in the use of these products is recommended. See the EMA’s review conclusions here.

In May 2015, UK’s newspaper The Independent published an article entitled: Thousands of teenage girls report feeling seriously ill after routine school cancer vaccination. The article focuses on the story of Emily Ryalls, 17, who started feeling intense pains and difficulty breathing soon after receiving the HPV vaccine.

Mrs Ryalls reported Emily’s symptoms to the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), and she was not alone: adverse reactions after HPV vaccination numbered 8,228, of which 2,587 were classified as “serious”; that’s substantially more that those reported with other compulsory vaccines (see graph). The MHRA, though, said it had no concerns on the numbers of adverse reactions related to the HPV vaccine and that the “expected benefits in preventing illness and death from HPV infection outweigh the known risks”.

Emily’s mother, together with other 80 families in similar situation across the UK have formed the Association for HPV Vaccine Injured Daughters (AHVID).

As stated by the newspaper “This article created significant debate among medical professionals, journalists and members of the public…”.

In France, the National Security Agency of Medicines and Health Products (ANSM) just published (September 2015) the results of the follow-up of more than 2 million girls aged 13-16 years, vaccinated between 2008 and 2013 to evaluate the occurrence of side effects, mainly autoimmune diseases. When analysed all the diseases together, their results showed no overall increased risk of occurrence of serious events. However, when each disease was analysed individually, a four-fold increase in the occurrence of Guillain Barre syndrome was observed. The study also found an increased risk of Inflammatory Bowel disease, but the association was weak.

The authors conclude: “…the results of the study… prove reassuring regarding the risk of autoimmune disease associated with the HPV vaccines. The expected benefits of this vaccination in terms of public health are far greater than the eventual risks the girls may be exposed to” (37). In spite of these “reassuring” results, the vaccination rate in France continue to be low (less than 30%).

In September 2015, another report provided details on 45 individuals from 13 countries who developed a chronic ailment soon after receiving the HPV vaccine. “A disabling syndrome of chronic neuropathic pain, vexing fatigue, and profound autonomic dysfunction may appear after HPV vaccination,” say the authors, headed by Manuel Martínez-Lavín, MD, a specialist in chronic pain conditions from Mexico City. After a mean period of 4 years following HPV vaccination, 93% of individuals “continue to have incapacitating symptoms and remain unable to attend school or work,” write the authors (38).

POTS after HPV vaccination has also been reported in the United States. Dr. Blitshteyn, a neurologist from New York, described six patients who developed POTS between 6 days and 2 months after HPV vaccination. All patients reported improvement over 3 years, but residual symptoms persisted (39).

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) emphasised that controlled clinical trials in tens of thousands of individuals plus postlicensure monitoring of millions of individuals have found no causal association between HPV vaccination and atypical pain syndromes or autonomic dysfunction.

Dr. Diane Harper, an american obstetrician & gynecologist, is one of the HPV experts called in to design the clinical trials of Gardasil and Cervarix. Although initially in favour of the vaccine, in recent years she has questioned Gardasil safety. She stated that “Gardasil has been associated with at least as many serious adverse events as there are deaths from cervical cancer developing each year”. Moreover, in an article published in December 2009 she concluded that, given the various limitations and risks of the vaccines, the beneﬁts and risks of HPV vaccination must be weighed with the beneﬁts and risks of HPV screening (Pap smears) to reduce cervical cancer in a cost-effective manner (40).

Dr. Harper does not support mandatory HPV vaccination for schoolchildren, because she believes that the duration of protection may be too short (see below). She has also criticised the short period of time vaccines were tried before its licensure, and the misleading publicity carried out by the pharmaceutical companies. Learn more here.

8. Other debatable issues

Vaccination in boys

The rationale of vaccinating boys is to reduce the transmission of the HPV virus to women and to protect them against oral and anal cancers (41). Since these cancers are very rare, it has been questioned by some scientists whether is it worth to expose millions of boys to potential vaccine side effects in order to protect girls, or to prevent a so rare type of cancer (responsible for just 300 deaths in the USA); whether the benefit outweighs the risk and if men vaccination is cost effective. While countries such as Australia and the USA include boys in their vaccine recommendations, other countries (i.e., UK and France) have not yet adopted this measure.

Men who have sex with men are a special category, since they are at higher risk of anal cancer. Thus, some experts believe these men (and not every boy) should be offered the vaccine. However, this measure may be difficult to implement: in order get covered by their insurance or social security, young men may be required to declare their sexual preferences.

Immunogenicity of Gardasil vs. Cervarix

Immunogenicity means the ability of the vaccine to provoke an immune response; in other words, the “strength” of the vaccine.

Most countries adopted vaccination with Gardasil instead of Cervarix assuming equal protection for cancer, with the “bonus” protection against genital warts. But is it really like this?

Several studies have demonstrated that Cervarix elicits stronger and longer-lasting immune response than Gardasil (42, 43).

These laboratory findings have also been confirmed by some clinical studies: Over the years, the efficacy of the Cervarix to protect vaccinated women from precancerous lesions (total vaccinated cohort-naive) was 93%, while Gardasil’s dropped to 43% (44)

Age of vaccination

This subject has also raised intense debate and concern. As stated above, immune response provoked by the vaccines may be of limited duration, especially for Gardasil. This can be a serious limitation of the vaccine because, as Dr. Harper noted “… if the HPV vaccine does not last for at least 15 years, no cancers will ever be prevented; women will just get the cancers at a later time in life after the vaccine has worn off“.

If this short protection span is confirmed by clinical studies, a boost dose would solve this limitation. However, this would increase considerably the cost of the vaccine; moreover, women who don’t comply with this recommendation will become unprotected over time.

Increase of promiscuity?

Many people feared that the the HPV vaccine would lead girls to promiscuous behavior. This was actually investigated by some studies, and have proved not to be true: no increase in sexually transmitted diseases was observed among vaccinated girls (45), showing that vaccination is unlikely to promote unsafe sexual activity.

9. Unanswered questions…

Will the HPV vaccine reduce cervical cancer deaths in real-world conditions?
In light of the latest publications, should vaccination programs be halted until the situations is clarified?
Due to these latest concerns, will more women opt for no vaccination, missing the opportunity to be protected against cancer?
Since the syndromes potentially related to vaccines are difficult to diagnose, is it possible that they have been underreported in the past? Could they possibly become over reported in the future?
Will the vaccine create a false sense of full protection against cervical cancer, resulting in less women attending screening programs?
Will the vaccine lead to a reduction of the HPV types included in the vaccine, but to an increase of those not included in the vaccine?

10. Conclusion

It is indeed exciting to have a vaccine that protects against cancer. After seeing women dying from cervical cancer, I truly wish that cervical cancer will be eradicated in the future. But we MUST be sure that we don’t create more harm than good in the process.

I am in favor of vaccines. Vaccines have done a lot of good to humanity (just imagine if we would still have small pox, or poliomyelitis…). It is true that every single medical practice may come with side effects, and this include vaccines. But we MUST know exactly what are the vaccine risks, and whether the benefits outweigh the risks.

I firmly believe that governments, scientific societies and pharmaceutical companies MUST do an effort to inform people in a responsible and honest manner, so that all of us -young people, parents and physicians- continue to believe in good science, and vaccines don’t lose their credibility.

It will take 10 to 20 years to figure out the true benefit of the HPV vaccine. In the meantime, keep in mind that Pap tests never killed anyone, on the contrary, they have saved millions of lives. Therefore, don’t forget your Pap smear!

Read on the latest events related to the HPV vaccine here.

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Photo Credits

Intro: Getty images; 1: curecancer.org; 2: m2.behance.net; 3: (collage) wikimedia commons; 4: cityofchicago.org; nkytribune.com; 5: english.cri.cn; hpv.health.gov.au; 6: marketingmag.ca; scontent.cdninstagram.com; 7: Japan: wikimedia commons; Denmark: vaccineimpact.com; UK: independent.co.uk; France: science-et-vie.com; POTS: pinterest.com; Harper: initiativecitoyenne.be; 8: bphc.org; migueljara.files.wordpress.com; lh3.googleusercontent.com; 9: healthvermont.gov; 10: compasscayman.com; i.dailymail.co.uk